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Related Items: 2nd edn (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977). Butler, M. Romantics, Rebels arid Reactionaries: English Literature and its Background 1760-1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982). Macrae, A. D. F. (ed.). P. B. Shelley (London: Routledge, 1991). A good student selection. Wu, Duncan (ed.). Romanticism, 2nd edn (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998). An annotated anthology. [p. 245] Part Four: Victorian Literature to 1880 [p. 247] 8. The Age and its Sages Contents The Victorian age Overview Moral history Abundance Victoria's long reign saw a growth in literature, especially in fiction, practised notably by Why sages? Dickens, Thackeray, the Bront.s, George Eliot, Trollope, James and Hardy. Poetry too was Thomas Carlyle popular, especially that of Tennyson; Browning and (though then unknown) Hopkins are also John Stuart Mill major poets. Thinkers, too, were eagerly read. Matthew Arnold, poet, critic and social critic, was John Ruskin the last to earn the respectful hearing given earlier to such sages as Carlyle, Mill, Ruskin and John Henry Newman Newman. Many Victorians allowed their understanding to be led by thinkers, poets, even Charles Darwin novelists. It was an age both exhilarated and bewildered by growing wealth and power, the pace Matthew Arnold of industrial and social change, and by scientific discovery. After the middle of puma trainers the reign, confidence began to fade; its last two decades took on a different atmosphere, and literature Further reading developed various specialist forms – .stheticism, professional entertainment, disenchanted social concern. These decades, which also saw an overdue revival of drama, are treated separately. The Victorian age ‘Victorian' is a term that is often extended beyond the queen's reign (1837-1901) to include William IV's reign from 1830. Historians distinguish early, middle and late Victorian England, corresponding to periods of growing pains, of confidence in the 1850s, and of loss of consensus after 1880, a date which offers a convenient division: Charles Dickens (1812-70) and Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) belonged to different ages. Under Victoria, a Britain transformed by the Industrial Revolution became the world's leading imperial power and its most interesting country. Fyodor Dostoevsky, <a href="http://www.todsshoeonline.com/products_all.html"><strong>tods shoe</strong></a> Mark Twain, Henry James and even French writers came to see London. New Yorkers waited on the dockside to hear if Dickens's Little Nell, of The Old Curiosity Shop, was still alive. But were England's authors as taken up with their rapidly-changing age as the term ‘Victorian literature' can suggest? Many were. The historian T. B. Macaulay praised the age's spirit of progress. Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin prophesied against the age, as sometimes did Dickens. Tennyson [p. 248] The Albert Memorial, Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, London. Albert had died in 1861; George Gilbert Scott's Gothic monument (1864-7) celebrates the achievements of the age, and the Prince's patronage of the arts and sciences. periodically tried to make sense of it; Matthew Arnold criticized it; Mrs Gaskell reflected it and reflected on it. Anthony Trollope represented it. Moral history A puma trainers for men lthough literature is never merely history, the novel becomes a moral history of modern life with Dickens and Thackeray, elaborately so in George Eliot's Middlernarch, a novel exemplifying puma shoes a principle Eliot derived from Scott: ‘there is no private life which has not been determined by a wider public life'. Yet the wider life was interesting to George Eliot (the pen-name of Mary Ann Evans) because it shaped the moral and emotional life of single persons. In keeping with this Romantic priority, her characters are more personal than Scott's. George Eliot (1819-80) was one of many who sought after wisdom in an age of shaken certitudes and robust consciences. Clergymen, sages and critics wrote lessons and lectures for the breakfast-table and the tea-table. These were later bound up in tomes with marbled endpapers. Few are unshelved today, except in universities. The Victorian books living today are chiefly novels, and these novels (despite the ‘authenticity' of their modern film versions) do not hold up a mirror to the age. Victorians produced impressive reports on the London poor, on the factories of Manchester and on urban sanitation, but a documentary social realism was not the rule in Victorian fiction. One reason for this lies in the subjective and imaginative character of Romantic literature of the years 1798-1824, which altered the nature of non-factual writing. The simple pleasure of vicarious egotism died with Byron, but books, annuals and [p. 249] Events and publications of 1837-84 Events Notable publications 1837 Thomas Carlyle, The French Revolution; Charles Dickens, The Pickwick Papers. 1838 Chartist movement, demanding votes for workers, 1838 Dickens, Oliver Twist; Elizabeth Barrett, The begins. Seraphim, and Other Poems. 1839 Dickens, Nicholas Nickleby, Mrs Hemans (d.1835), Collected Works; Charles Darwin, The Voyage of HMS Beagle (J. M. W. Turner, The Fighting Temeraire; Stendhal, The Charterhouse of Parma). 1840 Victoria marries Prince Albert. Penny Post is 1840 Robert Browning, Sordello. begun. 1841 Sir Robert Peel's Conservative ministry. 1841 Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero-Worship; Dion Boucicault, London Assurance. 1842 T. B. Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome; Alfred Tennyson, Poems. 1843 Carlyle, Past and Present; John Ruskin, Modern Painters (5 vols 1860). 1844 Dickens, Martin Chuzzlewit; Benjamin Disraeli, Coningsby, Elizabeth Barrett, Poems; William Barnes, Poems of Rural Life, in the Dorset Dialect; William Makepeace Thackeray, The Luck of Barry Lyndon. 1845 Potato Famine in Ireland (to 1850). 1845 Disraeli, Sybil, or the Two Nations; John Henry Newman, Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine; R. Browning, Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (Edgar Allan Poe, Tales of Mystery and Imagination). 1846 Repeal of Corn Laws protecting landowners: this 1846 Charlotte, Emily and Anne Bront., Poems by splits the Conservatives. Russell’s Liberal ministry Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell; Edward Lear, Book of (to 1852). Nonsense. 1847 Anne Bront., Agnes Grey; Charlotte Bront., Jane Eyre; Emily Bront., Wuthering Heights; Anthony Trollope, The Macdermots of Ballycloran; T puma trainers ennyson, The Princess. 1848 Revolutions in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Rome, etc. 1848 Anne Bront., The Tenant of Wildfell Hall; Dickens, Marx and Engels: <a href="http://www.todsshoeonline.com/specials.html"><strong>tods shoes uk </strong></a> The Communist Manifesto. The Dombey and Son; Gaskell, Mary Barton; Mill, Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood is founded. Principles of Political Economy, Thackeray, Vanity Fair, Arthur Hugh Clough, The Bothie of Tober-na- Vuolich. 1849 Charlotte Bront., Shirley, Macaulay; The History of England (5 vols to 1861); Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture; Thackeray, Pendennis. 1850 Dickens, David Copperfield; Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Sonnets from the Portuguese; Dante Gabriel Rossetti and others, The Germ; Tennyson, In Memoriam; William Wordsworth, The Prelude. 1851 Great Exhibition at the ‘Crystal Palace'. 1851 Ruskin, The Stones of Venice (3 vols 1853); E. B. Browning, Casa Guidi Windows. 1852 Victoria and Albert Museum opened. 1852 J. H. Newman, Discourse on the Scope and Nature of University Education; Thackeray, The History of Henry Esmond. 1853 Charlotte Bront., Villette; Dickens, Bleak House; Elizabeth Gaskell, Cranford; Matthew Arnold, Poems. 1854 Crimean War against Russia (to 1856). 1854 Dickens, Hard Times; Thackeray, The Newcomes; Tennyson, The Charge of the Light Brigade; Coventry Patmore, The Angel in the House (4 parts 1862). 1855 Gaskell, North and South; Trollope, The Warden; R. Browning, Men and Women; Tennyson, Maud (Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass). [p. 250] Events and publications of 1837-80 Continued 1856 James Anthony Froude, History of England (12 vols 1870). 1857 Indian Mutiny. 1857 Charlotte Bront., The Professor, Dickens, Little Dorrit; Gaskell, The Life of Charlotte Bront.; Carlyle, Collected Works (16 vols 1858); Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's Schooldays; Trollope, Barchester puma trionfo uk shops Towers; E. B. Browning, Aurora Leigh; George Eliot, Scenes of Clerical Life (Gustave Flaubert, Madame Bovary; Charles Baudelaire, Les Fleurs du Mal). 1858 Carlyle, Frederick the Great (8 vols 1865); Clough, Amours de Voyage. 1859 Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities; Eliot, Adam Bede, ‘The Lifted Veil'. 1860 Wilkie Collins, The Woman in White; Eliot, The Mill on the Floss. 1861 American Civil War (to 1865). Prince Albert dies. 1861 Dickens, Great Expectations; Thackeray, The Four Georges; Trollope, Framley Parsona discount puma ge; Francis Turner Palgrave (ed.), The Golden Treasury; D. G. Rossetti (trans.), Early Italian Poets. 1862 Prince Bismarck becomes Prussian Chancellor (to 1862 E. B. Browning, Last Poems; George Meredith, 1890). Modern Love; Christina Rossetti, Goblin Market. 1863 London Underground begun. 1863 Eliot, Romola; John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism. 1864 Newman, Apologia Pro Vita Sua; Trollope, Can You Forgive Her?; R. Browning, Dramatis Personae. 1865 Arnold, Essays in Criticism; Lewis Carroll, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland; Dickens, Our Mutual Friend; Newman, The Dream of Gerontius. 1866 Eliot, Felix Holt; Elizabeth Gaskell (d.1865), Wives and Daughters; Algernon Charles Swinburne, Poems and Ballads. 1867 Benjamin Disraeli's Second Reform Bill. 1867 Trollope, The Last Chronicle of Barset (Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace). 1868 W. E. Gladstone PM (to 1874). First Trades Union 1868 Collins, The Moonstone; Browning, The Ring and Congress. the Book; William Morris, The Earthly Paradise (3 volumes, 1870). 1869 Anglican Church disestablished in Ireland. 1869 Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy. 1870 Prussians defeat Napoleon III at Sedan. 1870 Disraeli, Lothair; Newman, A Grammar of Assent. 1871 Paris Commune suppressed. Non-Anglicans 1871 Eliot, Middlemarch (4 vols 1872). allowed to attend Oxford and Cambridge. 1872 Hardy, Under the Greenwood Tree. 1873 Arnold, Literature and Dogma; Hardy, A Pair of Blue Eyes; Walter Pater, Studies in the Renaissance. 1874 Disraeli becomes PM (to 1880). 1874 Hardy, Far From the Madding Crowd; James (B. V.) Thomson, ‘The City of Dreadful Night' 1875 Public Health Act. 1875 Trollope, The Way We Live Now. 1876 Invention of the telephone. 1876 Eliot, Daniel Deronda; Henry James, Roderick Hudson. 1877 Victoria Empress of India. 1878 Hardy, The Return of the Native (Leo Tolstoy, Anna Karenina). 1879 Gladstone denounces the Imperialism of the 1879 James, Daisy Miller, The Europeans. Conservative Government. 1880 (Fyodor Dostoevsky, The Brothers Karamazov). periodicals brought a regulated Romanticism into Victorian homes -via, for example, Jane Austen's novels. In this simple sense, all subsequent literature – even the anti-Romantic literature of the modernists – is post-Romantic. sale puma saturday Victorian narrative history has much in common with novel-writing. Scott's wish to tell the tale of the tribe was felt by Thackeray, Dickens and George Eliot, who re-create the worlds [p. 251] surrounding their childhoods. In an age of disorienting change, historical thinking was incited by the blasts of Carlyle's trumpet in his French Revolution, Heroes and Hero-worship and Past and Present. The effects of Carlyle can be read in Ruskin, Dickens and William Morris. Abundance An eager reading public, larger than before, was regularly fed with serials and three-decker novels. Collected editions of popular novelists and best-selling prophets, and of fastidious prose-writers such as John Henry Newman and Walter Paten run to many volumes. In an age when <a href="http://www.todsshoeonline.com/tods-mens-moccasins-c-242.html"><strong>tods men shoes</strong></a> engineering miracles appeared every month and London had several postal deliveries a day, Dickens was thought hyperactive. Trollope wrote 2-3000 words daily before going to work at the Post Office. He invented the pillar box, rode to hounds midweek and Saturday, and wrote seventy books. The verse of a Tennyson, a Browning or a Morris is not contained in a thousand pages. Lesser writers such as Benjamin Disraeli, Bulwer Lytton, Charles Kingsley, Mrs Oliphant and Vernon Lee w puma trainers ere equally prolific. Victorian vim continued less cheerfully in Thomas Hardy, Henry James, Joseph Conrad and the Edwardian Ford Madox Ford. Thereafter, serious novelists became less productive, though D. H. Lawrence (18851930) and the American William Faulkner (1897-1962) are exceptions. To some, such abundance already seemed oppressive long before 1914. But by the time Lytton Strachey's Eminent Victorians came out in 1918, most of what the Victorians had believed, assumed and hoped had died. Strachey's debunkings of Cardinal Manning, Dame Florence Nightingale, Dr Thomas Arnold and General Gordon sold well. Victorians enjoyed laughing at themselves with Dickens, Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, W. S. Gilbert and Oscar Wilde, and had a genius for light verse and for nonsense verse (not the same thing). But the modernist puma trainers uk s ridiculed the Victorians, who are still not always taken seriously, even by academics. Although universities have reinvested heavily in Victorian literary culture, quality remains the criterion in a critical history. Much of this literary abundance is of human or of cultural interest. How much of it is of artistic value? Queen Victoria opening the Great Exhibition in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London, 1 May 1851. [p. 252] Before attempting this question, a change in the position of the writer must be noted. The novel became a major public entertainment at the same time that books became big business. The writer now worked for the public, via the publisher. Whereas Wordsworth had a government sinecure, and the Prince Regent had obliged the reluctant Miss Austen to dedicate Emma to him, Victorian writers pleased the public. It is true that the Queen liked Tennyson to read to her, and that she ordered Lewis Carroll's complete works. When she wished to meet Dickens, he declined to be presented. Dickens was a commercial as well as a literary wizard, but not every writer could trade in letters. Edward Lear, a twentieth child, acted as tutor to Lord Derby's children. Robert Browning, Edward Fitzgerald and John Ruskin had private incomes. Lewis Carroll was a mathematics don, Trollope a civil servant, Matthew Arnold an Inspector of Schools. But commercial publication and writers' personal finances meant that few Victorians treated literature as an art – unlike Jonson, Milton, Austen or Keats, none of whom was rich. There were perfectionists – W. S. Landor, Emily Bront., Christina Rossetti, J. H. Newman, Matthew Arnold, Gerard Hopkins, Walter Paten Henry James, and more in the Nineties. Other perfectionists, Tennyson and Wilde, prospered greatly, and George Eliot earned millions in modern money, though less than Dickens. But few Victorian novels are as well made as Wuthering Heights or Middlemarch, and few Victorian poems are perfect. What was perfection in comparison with imaginative and emotional power, moral passion, and the communication of vision, preferably to a multitude? The popularity of Romanticism, combined with the need of the press for a rapid and regular supply, had an inflationary effect on the literary medium. The quality of the writing of Carlyle, Thackeray, Ruskin and Dickens is more grossly uneven than that of their 18th-century predecessors. In retrospect, and in comparison with today, Victorian confidence in the taste of a middle-class public is impressive. The quality of novels published in monthly serials is high if not consistent. Ordinary talents were strained by the hectic pace of serial publication, but Dickens exulted in it. His novels could be shorter, but few would wish them fewer. The abundance and unevenness of Victorian writing do not suit the summary generalizations of a brief literary history. To the curious reader with time, however, there is compensation in its immense variety, and the unprecedentedly full and individualized set of pictures it gives of its age. The reader of Christopher Ricks's New Oxford Book of Victorian Verse (1988) will have some pleasant surprises. Why sages? The lasting influence of Victorian thinkers such as Carlyle, Mill, Ruskin, Newman, Darwin and Arnold requires some preliminary attention. Why did this new animal, the Victorian Sage, appear? Why did secular literature assume such importance? Why did the saintly Newman write two novels and the politician Disraeli sixteen? Why did another prime minister, Gladstone, publish three books on Homer, and a third, Lord Derby, translate Homer? Why did Matthew Arnold believe that poetry would come to replace religion? Deism and scepticism had in the 18th century reduced both what educated Christians believed, and the strength with which they believed it. By the time of the French Revolution, some intellectuals (not all of them radicals) were not Christians. Public meetings gave new chances to speakers, and Dissent became political rather than religious. In the liberal reforms of 1828-33, the Church of England lost its legal [p. 253] monopoly. Most Victorians went to church or chapel, although the factory towns of the Midlands and North had fewer churches, which did not always provide convincing leadership. In an age of rapid change and disappearing landmarks, guides to the past, present and future were needed, and lay preachers appeared. Some were Dissenters, others sceptics, others penny-aliners. Carlyle and Ruskin came from Scots Calvinist backgrounds to set up pulpits in the English press. Unchurched intellectuals like George Eliot looked for and provided guidance. The Oxford Movement renewed the Catholic inheritance of the Church of England. Most preachers preached, of course, from Anglican pulpits, like the Broad Church Charles Kingsley, who also preached from university lecterns, as did his Christian Socialist friend the Rev. F. D. Maurice. These thinkers were the first to see and to seek to understand the effects of industrial capitalism on social and personal life, effects which continue. Their often valid analyses are rarely read today, for the tones in which Carlyle and Ruskin address their audiences sound odd today. Yet they had a deep influence, so long assimilated as to be forgotten, on many significant currents of national culture, among them the Gothic Revival, Anglo-Catholicism, Christian Socialism, British Marxism, ‘Young England' Toryism, the Trade Union movement cheap puma , t puma speed cat beige he Arts and Crafts movement, the National Trust, the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, and the cults of the environment, of the <a href="http://inbookmark.com/mybookmark.php"><strong>tod shoes</strong></a> arts, and of literature. The society and conditions shaped by the Industrial Revolution met their first response in these thinkers. Thomas Carlyle Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) Signs of the The voice of Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) was heard soon after the Times (1829), Characteristics (1831), Romantic poets fell silent. Edinburgh University enlightened this Sartor Resartus (1833-4), History o puma outlet uk f the stonemason's son out of the Presbyterian ministry for which he was intended, French Revolution (1837), Heroes and but left him dissatisfied with scepticism. Religion was created by humanity to Hero-Worship (1841), Chartism (1839), meet human needs: its old clothes should be discarded, updated, replaced by Past and Present (1843), Oliver new man-made beliefs. This is the theme of Sartor Resartus (‘The Tailor Re-Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1845), clothed'), which purports to be the autobiography of a mad German Occasional discourse on the nigger philosopher edited by an equally fictitious editor. A Romantic heart is question (1849), Latter-day Pamphlets similarly ‘edited' by an Enlightened head in Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent (1850), Life of John Sterling(1851), Life of (1800) and Hogg's Justified Sinner (1832), but Carlyle's work is far more Frederick the Great of Prussia (1858-65). 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