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Illustration: Cristiana Couceiro, Scientis: Getty Photographs It all commenced with all the sound of static. In Could 1964, two astronomers at Bell Labs, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, were applying a radio telescope in suburban New Jersey to search the much reaches of area. Their intention was for making a in depth survey of radiation with the Milky Way, which would let them to map individuals vast tracts with the universe devoid of shiny stars. This meant that Penzias and Wilson required a receiver which was exquisitely sensitive,Office Pro Plus, able to eavesdrop on all of the emptiness. And so they had retrofitted an old radio telescope, installing amplifiers including a calibration process for making the signals coming from space just a little bit louder. But they produced the scope also sensitive. Anytime Penzias and Wilson aimed their dish on the sky, they picked up a persistent qualifications noise, a static that interfered with all of their observations. It absolutely was an unbelievably frustrating technical issue, like listening to a radio station that keeps cutting out. To start with, they assumed the noise was man-made,Microsoft Office Standard 2007, an emanation from close by New york Metropolis. But after they pointed their telescope straight at Manhattan, the static didn’t increase. Another possibility was that the sound was due to fallout from recent nuclear bomb tests from the upper atmosphere. But that didn’t make sense either, since the level of interference remained constant, even as the fallout dissipated. And then there were the pigeons: A pair of birds were roosting during the narrow part for the receiver, leaving a trail of what they later described as “white dielectric material.” The scientists evicted the pigeons and scrubbed away their mess, but the static remained, as loud as ever. For that next year, Penzias and Wilson tried to ignore the noise,Office 2007 License, concentrating on observations that didn’t require cosmic silence or perfect precision. They put aluminum tape over the metal joints, kept the receiver as clean as likely, and hoped that a shift in the weather may clear up the interference. They waited for your seasons to change, and then change again, but the noise always remained,Office 2010 Professional Plus Key, doing it impossible to find the faint radio echoes they have been looking for. Their telescope was a failure. Kevin Dunbar is a researcher who studies how scientists study things — how they fail and succeed. In the early 1990s, he began an unprecedented research project: observing four biochemistry labs at Stanford University. Philosophers have long theorized about how science happens, but Dunbar desired to get beyond theory. He wasn’t satisfied with abstract models for the scientific way — that seven-step course of action we teach schoolkids before the science fair — or the dogmatic faith scientists place in logic and objectivity. Dunbar knew that scientists often don’t think the way the textbooks say they are supposed to. He suspected that all individuals philosophers of science — from Aristotle to Karl Popper — had missed something important about what goes on from the lab. (As Richard Feynman famously quipped, “Philosophy of science is about as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds.”) So Dunbar decided to launch an “in vivo” investigation, attempting to learn through the messiness of real experiments. He ended up spending the next year staring at postdocs and test tubes: The researchers had been his flock, and he was the ornithologist. Dunbar brought tape recorders into meeting rooms and loitered from the hallway; he read grant proposals and the rough drafts of papers; he peeked at notebooks, attended lab meetings, and videotaped interview right after interview. He spent four years analyzing the data. “I’m not sure I appreciated what I was getting myself into,” Dunbar says. “I asked for complete access, and I got it. But there was just so quite a bit to keep track of.” Dunbar came away from his in vivo studies with an unsettling insight: Science is a deeply irritating pursuit. Although the researchers had been mostly utilizing established techniques, more than 50 percent of their data was unexpected. (In some labs, the figure exceeded 75 percent.) “The scientists had these elaborate theories about what was supposed to happen,” Dunbar says. “But the results kept contradicting their theories. It wasn’t uncommon for someone to spend a month on a project and then just discard all their data because the data didn’t make sense.” Possibly they hoped to see a specific protein but it wasn’t there. Or maybe their DNA sample showed the presence of an aberrant gene. The details always changed, but the story remained the same: The scientists were looking for X, however they found Y. Dunbar was fascinated by these statistics. The scientific procedure, immediately after all,Microsoft Office 2007 Pro Plus, is supposed to be an orderly pursuit in the truth, full of elegant hypotheses and control variables. (Twentieth-century science philosopher Thomas Kuhn, for instance, defined normal science as the kind of research in which “everything but the most esoteric detail on the result is known in advance.”) On the other hand, when experiments were observed up shut — and Dunbar interviewed the scientists about even the most trifling details — this idealized version with the lab fell apart, replaced by an endless supply of disappointing surprises. There had been models that didn’t work and data that couldn’t be replicated and simple studies riddled with anomalies. “These weren’t sloppy individuals,” Dunbar says. “They were working in some from the finest labs in the world. But experiments rarely tell us what we think they’re going to tell us. That’s the dirty secret of science.”Pages: Prior 1 2 3 | Full Page | Next